Dreams of Augustus: The Story of the Roman Empire Read online

  Dreams of Augustus: The Story of the Roman Empire

  ANDREW LANTZ

  History Coalition Press

  Copyright © 2011 by Andrew S. Lantz

  All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

  Printed in the United States of America

  First Printing, 2011

  ISBN-13: 978-1461198512

  ISBN-10: 1461198518

  www.historycoalition.com

  Table of Contents

  Introduction

  Rome’s Spectacular Rise

  Augustus: The Father of an Empire

  The Limits of Empire

  The Succession

  A New Emperor

  Caligula

  Into Britain

  Nero

  Rebellion in the East

  Arenas and Volcanoes

  The Foundations of Stability

  The Gilded Age

  Conquest

  Consolidation

  Roman Prosperity

  Marcus Aurelius: The Philosopher King

  Gladiators and Soldiers

  The Junta

  The Rise of Persia

  The End of the Ancient World

  Counterattack

  Diocletian

  The Rise of Constantine

  The New Rome

  Constantius II

  The Promise of Julian

  An Empire on the Brink of Collapse?

  The Coming of the Huns

  Theodosius

  Stilicho’s Gambit

  Barbarian Invasion

  The Sack of Rome

  The Crisis

  Constantius' Offensive

  A Dagger to the Heart

  Attila the Hun

  The Last Triumph

  The Fall of the West

  The Dark Ages Begin

  A Troubled Empire

  The Rise of Justinian

  Reconquest

  Justinian's Failure

  Stumbling Along

  The First Crusade

  The Coming of Islam

  Ancient Lessons for Today’s World

  This book is dedicated to my grandfather, Richard Kaufmann. He loved history and was the first person to introduce me to the Roman Empire. He was a great man and is deeply missed.

  Introduction

  In this book, I attempt to tell the story of the Roman Empire in an enlightening, casual, and fun way. If you don’t know much about the Roman Empire, you will learn a lot in this book. If you already know a few things, you will see the history of the Roman Empire from a different perspective.

  The thing about ancient history is that everyone that looks at it comes away with a slightly different story. If you read ten different books on the Roman Empire, you will get 10 different narratives on its rise and fall. Some facts are well established while others are disputed. This is not a textbook, so it is not intended to revolutionize the study of Roman history. Instead, I hope that you enjoy this book and become so passionate about the subject that you go out and read everything that you can about this remarkable empire and develop your own perspective on its history.

  The Roman Empire was the most impressive empire in history. It was a European, African and Asian empire whose unity held for almost 700 years. Even though it hasn't been around for 1700 years, its legacy is visible from the Colosseum to Hagia Sophia; from the great cathedrals of Europe to the great mosques of the Middle East; from the United States constitution to the European Union.

  It was huge. The map of the Roman Empire looks impressive, but it doesn't give us proper perspective into how big it really was in an era without highways and fiber-optic cables.

  To get a sense of its scope and size, imagine what it would be like if all of North America united with all of Europe. Think about what it would be like to bring together all those different languages and cultures together and function cohesively. The Roman Empire did that, and it thrived for centuries.

  The period we are talking about here begins at around the time of Jesus’ birth and lasts until shortly after the death of Muhammad. This was a time where there were no cars or airplanes to move people around quickly. Horses were the speediest way to get around. This was a time without the Internet or telephones to communicate quickly.

  This was also a time when most people would be dead before they turned 40.

  Most Romans did not live in the cities. At minimum 80% of the people in the Roman Empire spent their entire lives working the fields for their landowners. They were peasants, and their lives sucked even by the standards of the time. The prime concern for these people was having enough food to survive. In times of good harvests, they had enough food to indulge in the occasional dessert. During less favorable times, bugs and leaves would have to suffice.

  Frankly, the only nice thing that the Roman Empire did for these was keep them safe which, given what came before and after, was an important service.

  For the minority of Romans who were landlords or city-dwellers, the Roman Empire was very significant.

  At this time in history, the most prosperous areas of the world were China, India, Mesopotamia (Iraq) and the Mediterranean Sea. These areas generated great cities and, as a result, great civilizations. You’ve probably heard of the Han in China, the Mauryans in India and Babylon in Mesopotamia.

  You’ve also probably heard of great civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea like the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Phoenicians. In their prosperity they passed on to us remarkable traditions, writings and buildings. From the Greeks we received democracy and the Iliad. From the Egyptians we have the pyramids. From the Phoenicians we have our alphabet.

  The Romans conquered these and all the other civilizations of the Mediterranean Sea and brought them into a zone of interdependence that featured peace, free movement and free trade.

  For the non-peasant, there wouldn’t be a better time and place to live in until the industrial revolution (it has pretty much always sucked for the poor peasant).

  This book is the story of how this empire thrived and fell. In the Roman Empire, we see an empire that rose because of it was more innovative and forward thinking than its neighbors. Once it reached the top, however, the groups that had prospered defended their positions by maintaining the status quo. Meanwhile, the Empire’s neighbors learned from the Romans and prospered. As the centuries progressed, Rome’s huge lead faded away and the best they could do was hold the line (which they did quite well). Then, when forces outside of their control upset an increasingly delicate balance of power, the Roman Empire were overwhelmed and broke apart, piece by piece.

  In the Roman era, military muscle was the source of power. Today, nuclear weapons and globalization have made military power subordinate to economic power. The United States is in no danger of being conquered like the Roman Empire was, however it is certainly in danger, over time, of losing its economic dominance and, therefore, its ability to promote the values that it stands for.

  For the reader living in modern America, there is much to learn from the Roman experience. Like the United States in 2010, the Roman Empire in 10 was far and away the most powerful in the world (There were kingdoms in China and India that were powerful, however they were generally isolated from the Romans). Eventually, however, the Romans lost that superiority and faced serious consequences because of that.

  This is a history book, not a book about politics. However, history tells us that most problems that we face today have been faced by others in the past, albe
it in different forms. As you read the storyline of the Roman Empire, admire its successes but be conscious of how the circumstances that ultimately led to its fall were created as a byproduct of its success.

  1

  Rome’s Spectacular Rise

  In the year 1500 BCE, no one in their right mind would have predicted that a great empire would emerge from Italy. By all measures, Italy was a backwater. If you wanted to find civilization, you had to look elsewhere; the great cities of Mesopotamia; the pyramids of Egypt; the majestic palaces of Crete or the distant lands of India and China.

  However, as time passes, people move. A great series of migrations brought new people to Italy; these people founded cities, and these cities grew. One such city was built along the banks of the Tiber River.

  Nobody knows the exact circumstances that surrounded its founding, but the Romans themselves created a number of cool stories to describe it. The most famous is that two brothers, Romulus and Remus, were abandoned by their father, the god of war, Mars. After initially being cared for by a she-wolf, Romulus and Remus were found and taken care of by a shepherd. Upon becoming adults, the two brothers decided that it would be fun to build a city.

  The brothers found a nice area with seven hills and began building their city. To give them guidance, the two sought out signs from the gods (Apparently being left for dead by their daddy god didn’t shake their faith). Remes spotted six vultures soaring through the sky, which he interpreted as a good sign. Alas, Romulus spotted twelve vultures, which he interpreted as an even better sign. He killed Remus and became the first king of Rome. This is traditionally dated to 753 BCE.

  This story, perhaps, is a little hard to believe. Interestingly enough, however, recent archeological discoveries have excavated fortifications in Rome that can be dated back to the middle of the 8th century BCE. While the specific details are probably nothing more than a cool story, the current evidence does suggest that people were living in Rome around that time period.

  The new city was initially ruled by kings. In 508 BCE, the last of Rome’s kings were overthrown and a republic was formed. This was a largely democratic system where representatives were elected and, most important to the Romans who had developed a hatred of kings, no one man could hold too much power. For example, the position of consul, which controlled the armed forces, only had a one year term. In addition, it was split among two elected men.

  Along with the consul, the Senate was an extremely powerful institution. Senators were appointed by elected consuls and initially served as advisers to other political offices. Over time, however, the Senate became more and more prestigious until it became a sort of aristocracy that held enormous power. You’ve probably heard of some of the most famous Roman senators like Cato, Cicero and Brutus. Of all the institutions of the Republic, the Senate was the least able and willing to make necessary reforms. Ultimately, this would be its undoing.

  For the next two hundred years, Rome jockeyed for power in Italy. Among its triumphs, it suffered a great disaster in 387 BCE when it was brutally sacked by a tribe of barbarian Gauls. Remarkably, the city recovered fully. While Alexander the Great and his successors spread Greek culture into the Middle East, Rome expanded its influence in Italy. By 281, the Greek cities in southern Italy felt enough pressure from Rome that they called the king of Epirus in western Greece named Pyrrhus to save them. Pyrrhus, who wanted to carve an empire in Italy, won every battle he fought with the Romans. Nevertheless, he suffered such high casualties that he withdrew. His legacy is the phrase ‘Pyrrhic victory’, which is used to describe costly victories.

  Rome soon swallowed up the Greek cities in southern Italy, which led it to turn its sights on nearby Sicily. This led it into conflict with the North African city of Carthage (Centered in Tunisia). The two fought three wars for control of the western Mediterranean. Under the leadership of Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginians wiped out three Roman armies and put Rome itself under siege. Once again, however, Rome bounced back and decisively defeated Carthage. As a result, Rome gained control of Sicily and established footholds in Africa and Spain.

  Rome then proceeded to expand rapidly. Military triumph was a path to power in the Republic, and ambitious generals had a lot of rich picking to choose from in the eastern Mediterranean. Macedonia was conquered in 148 BCE. Greece fell in 146 BCE. The kingdom of Pergamum in western Turkey was bequeathed to Rome in 133 BCE. Northern Turkey was conquered in 66 BCE. Syria was conquered in 64 BCE. During this time, outnumbered Roman armies overcame extraordinary odds to defeat their opponents. It was simply an unmatched fighting machine.

  As Rome became an imperial power, its republican institutions began to fail. Longer campaigns meant longer commands, which gave generals greater amounts of power. At the same time, as increasing amounts of wealth flowed to Rome, the population exploded. Appeasing the masses with bread and jobs was a challenge that was very difficult for the Senate, which was primarily interested in preserving its own privileged position. Effectively wielding the mob became a way for ambitious commanders to undermine the Senate.

  For much of the 1st century BCE, the republic was engulfed in civil war. In 55 BCE, a 45 year old politician named Julius Caesar became the governor of Roman territory in southern France (called Gaul by the Romans) and spent the next five years conquering the rest of France and even launching raids into Britain. Fearful of Caesar’s power, the Senate brought up charges of treason against Caesar. To avoid prosecution, Caesar marched on Rome.

  The civil war that followed was bloody and dragged on for four years. By the end of it, Caesar was, for all intents and purposes, the absolute ruler of Rome. He had ambitious plans for integrating the conquered provinces into Roman politics, making crucial social reforms, and expanding the empire further in the east. Caesar, however, acted too much like a king. He showed complete disregard for the Senate and had a steamy affair with the Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. On the 15th of March, 44 BCE, Caesar was stabbed to death on the floor of the Senate by a mob of Senators.

  If the assassins of Caesar hoped for a return to democracy, they were wrong. Once again Rome descended into chaos, and for over a decade there was near continuous war between different individuals vying for control. At the two battles of Philippi in 42 BCE, the assassins of Caesar were defeated and killed by the two men claiming to carry on Caesar's legacy: the faithful general of Caesar, Marc Antony, and the young, adopted son of Caesar named Octavian. These two became the most powerful men in Rome, and they were destined to clash.

  Besides the built-in tensions that come when two ambitious men share power was Cleopatra’s influence. Cleopatra successfully seduced Marc Antony, and when he began to spend a suspiciously long time in Egypt and away from his wife (who happened to be Octavian's sister), he lost favor with the Roman people. When his will was leaked and it became clear that he favored his sons by Cleopatra, Octavian was able to play off Roman xenophobia and declare war on Antony.

  The two met at sea outside the Greek city of Actium. Antony was a competent general but a lousy admiral. Octavian, while a lousy military commander, was a fantastic delegator. The commander of his fleet, a man by the name of Marcus Agrippa, was simply brilliant. Agrippa led Octavian's forces to a decisive victory, and Antony's army deserted him. When Octavian's army reached Alexandria the next year, Antony decided to take his own life rather than submit himself to the victor. Cleopatra tried again to charm a powerful Roman, but Octavian was as stoic as they came, and Cleopatra followed her lover into the afterlife by killing herself.

  After decades of chaos that featured the rise and fall of many talented leaders, Octavian had emerged as the master of Rome. In honor of his accomplishment, the Senate gave him the title of Augustus or 'revered one'. For all intensive purposes, the Roman Republic was dead, and something new needed to be built to replace it. At the same time, the Romans were very much attached to their traditions, so too much change could provoke a nasty backlash. These were the challenges facing the newly hailed Augustus
as he took over the responsibility of leading the Roman Empire.

  .

  2

  Augustus: The Father of an Empire

  The first thing that is striking about the Roman Empire is its size. On the surface, it looks to be about as large as the continental United States. This is deceiving, for given how slow communication and transportation was back then, it is better to visualize it as being at least twice as large. Most ancient empires of this size were too unwieldy to stay together, and those that did survive weren't nearly as successful as the Roman Empire.

  At the time of Augustus, the city of Rome was where all the power was. At its peak, Rome had hundreds of thousands of people living in it. Most citizens were poor (they were known as plebeians) and cramped into apartments in the city center. The wealthier citizens, however, did take it upon themselves to provide the poor with basic amenities like drinking water, trash collection and even a free supply of grain.

  The wealthiest Romans could be found residing in villas and enjoying themselves in the city’s remarkable line of baths, gymnasiums and theaters.

  As the home of the Roman Empire, Italy naturally had a very privileged position within the Empire. Because of this privilege, wealth was redistributed from throughout the empire to Italy. Some estimates are that Italy's GDP per capita was up to 50% higher than the rest of the empire.

  Imperial favor also benefited Italy in the form of massive public works programs that Rome was famous for: roads, aqueducts, ports, baths, stadiums, dams, etc.

  This isn't to say that the other provinces in the empire were suffering. Throughout the empire, a sort of “Romanization” occurred. The Latin language spread; cities developed in areas that were once rural or tribal; aqueducts, roads and schools sprung up. This development was particularly pronounced in the poorer parts of the empire like Spain and France.